ASI RUNWAY SAFETY FLASH CARDS Courtesy of the Air Safety Institute & FAA Office of Runway Safety The Air Safety Institute is dedicated to making flying easier and safer for general aviation pilots. For information on free online courses, live seminars, and publications, visit www.airsafetyinstitute.org. Edition 6, 08/2012, 403004.
Where in flight do you think the worst airplane accident in history happened? Many pilots would probably say in the air, but the worst accident in aviation history occurred on a runway (Tenerife Airport, 1977).
Studies show that general aviation operations account for the largest percentage of runway incursions. The potential for runway incidents and accidents can be reduced through adequate planning, coordination, and communication.
After this lesson, the student will be able to describe:
- Types of runway incursions.
- How to identify hold-short lines and their meaning.
- Procedures for keeping workload and distractions to a minimum during ground operations.
- ATC communications related to runway entry/crossing authorizations.
- How to plan and brief the taxi route, including the location of hot spots.
- Low-visibility taxi operations [IFR].
- Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25):
- Appendix 1, Runway Incursion Avoidance
- AC 91-73: Single Pilot, Flight School Procedures During Taxi Operations
- AC 120-57: Low Visibility Operations Surface Movement Guidance and Control System
- AC 120-74: Flightcrew Procedures During Taxi Operations
- SAFO 11004: Runway Incursion Prevention Actions
- AOPA Course: Runway Safety
- AOPA Video: Runway Safety – Critical Difference
Runway Incursions
Reference: AC 91-73The FAA formally defines a runway incursion as “any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.”
A surface incident is similar to a runway incursion but occurs on a designated movement area (excluding runway incursions) and affects or could affect the safety of flight.
Types of Runway Incursions
Pilot Deviations: Crossing a runway hold marking without a clearance or taking off or landing without a clearance.
Operational Incidents: Clearing an aircraft onto a runway while another aircraft is landing on the same runway.
Vehicle Deviations: Crossing a runway hold marking without ATC clearance.
Runway Incursion Severity
D | C | B | A | Accident |
Incident that meets the definition of runway incursion such as incorrect presence of a single vehicle/person/aircraft on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take-off of aircraft but with no immediate safety consequences. | An incident characterized by ample time and/or distance to avoid a collision. | An incident in which separation decreases and there is a significant potential for collision, which may result in a time critical corrective/ evasive response to avoid a collision. | A serious incident in which a collision was narrowly avoided. | An incursion that resulted in a collision. |
Runway Incursion Statistics
In the U.S., an average of three runway incursions occurs daily. According to FAA data, approximately 65% of all runway incursions are caused by pilots, of which 75% are caused by GA pilots.
Detailed investigations of runway incursions have identified three major contributing factors:
- Failure to comply with ATC instructions
- Lack of airport familiarity
- Nonconformance with standard operating procedures
- Distractions during taxi operations
Types of Errors that Can Lead to Deviations
Inadvertent pilot deviations can result from a variety of error types, including decision errors, skill-based errors, and perceptual errors.
Decision Errors (Cognitive)
Decision errors are “honest mistakes” that occur when one does not have the appropriate knowledge or made a poor choice. An action is carried out as intended but is inadequate for the situation at hand.
Examples:
- Inadequate weather evaluation
- Improper refueling decisions
Skill-Based Errors (Motor Control)
Skill-based errors are “stick-and-rudder” mistakes that occur without significant conscious thought. A person intends to carry out an action, carries it out incorrectly, and the desired goal is not achieved.
Examples:
- Airspeed or altitude not maintained
- Inadequate aircraft control
Perceptual Errors (Sensory)
Perceptual errors are due to incorrect responses to illusions. These can occur when sensory input is degraded at night or in other situations causing reduced visual acuity.
Examples:
- Misjudged distances
- Spatial disorientation/vertigo
Best Practices for Avoiding Pilot Deviations
Plan Each Flight: A pilot may have flown the route many times before, but conditions can change rapidly, like a pop-up temporary flight restriction (TFR).
Talk and Squawk: Proper communication with ATC has its benefits. Flight following often makes the controller’s job easier because they can better integrate VFR and IFR traffic. Controllers also have the latest local TFR information.
Give Yourself Some Room: GPS is usually more precise than radar. Using a GPS to fly along an airspace boundary could result in a pilot deviation because the ATC radar may show it within the restricted airspace. The pilot may be able to prove that he or she was not at fault but would need to produce a track from the navigation system.
Point and Acknowledge: This occupational safety method is used to avoid mistakes by pointing at important indicators and calling out the status. Pointing at and calling out instrument indications and outside references can help a pilot maintain focus and attention.
Stay Alert During Ground Operations: Pilot deviations can and do occur on the ground. Many airborne pilot deviation avoidance strategies and tactics work on the ground as well.
The best way to avoid a runway incursion is to make sure you understand (1) where you are at, (2) what you have been cleared to do, and (3) where you are going.
Runway Markings
Runway designation markings are numbers and letters that identify a runway. The number is determined from the approach direction. It is based on the magnetic heading of the runway centerline. The letters differentiate between left (L), right (R), or center (C) parallel runways, as applicable.
Runway centerline markings identify the center of the runway and provide alignment guidance to aircraft during takeoff and landing. The stripes are 120′ in length with 80′ gaps.
Runway aiming point markings serve as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft. These two rectangular markings consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of the runway centerline and approximately 1,000′ from the landing threshold. The markings are 100′ to 150′ in length depending on the runway length.
Runway touchdown zone markers identify the touchdown zone for landing operations. These markings provide distance information in 500′ increments. These markings consist of groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway centerline.
Runway side stripe markings consist of continuous white stripes located on each side of the runway. These markings provide a visual contrast between runway pavement and the ground.
Runway shoulder markings consist of continuous yellow stripes that are used when needed to identify pavement next to the runway that is not intended for use by aircraft.
Runway threshold markings identify the beginning of the runway that is available for landing. Runway threshold markings come in two configurations. These markings have eight stripes of uniform dimensions, or the number of stripes is related to the runway width. Visual runways, those without an instrument approach, do not have threshold markings.
Number of stripes when related to the runway width:
60′ Wide | 75′ Wide | 100′ Wide | 150′ Wide | 200′ Wide |
4 Stripes | 6 Stripes | 8 Stripes | 12 Stripes | 16 Stripes |
Demarcation bars delineate displaced runway thresholds from unusable pavement such as blast pads, stopways, or taxiways that precede the threshold. A demarcation bar is yellow since it is not located on the runway.
Chevrons are yellow markings aligned with the runway that show pavement areas that are unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing.
Runway threshold bars delineate the beginning of runways when a threshold has been relocated or displaced.
Taxiway Markings
Normal taxiway centerline markings are a single continuous yellow line. Ideally, the aircraft should be kept centered over this line during taxi. However, being centered on the taxiway centerline does not guarantee wingtip clearance with other aircraft or other objects.
Enhanced taxiway centerline markings are used at larger airports to warn pilots that they are approaching a runway holding position marking. These markings consist of two parallel, yellow-dashed lines located on either side of the normal taxiway centerline beginning approximately 150′ before a runway holding position marking.
Taxiway edge markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway, primarily when the taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. These markings typically consist of continuous double yellow lines. Dashed lines are used when the adjoining pavement is intended to be used by aircraft (e.g., a ramp).
Taxiway shoulder markings are yellow stripes that are used where conditions exist such as taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which side of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft. A taxiway shoulder is not intended for use by aircraft.
Surface painted taxiway direction signs are provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway direction signs at intersections, or when necessary to supplement such signs. These markings have a yellow background with a black inscription.
Surface painted location signs are located on the right side of the centerline assist the pilot in confirming the taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These markings have a black background with a yellow inscription.
Geographic position markings are located at points along low visibility taxi routes to identify the location of taxiing aircraft during low visibility operations. These markings are comprised of an outer white or black ring with a pink circle in the middle. Either a number or a number and letter is positioned in the center of the pink circle.
Holding Position Markings
Reference: AIM 2-3-5Runway holding position markings indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway. These markings consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, extending across the width of the taxiway or runway. The solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold.
Note: If a marking pattern consists of two or more lines, some of which are solid and some of which are dashed, it is permissible to cross from the dashed side to the solid side.
Locations where runway holding position markings are encountered:
- Runway holding position markings on taxiways identify locations where an aircraft is supposed to stop when it does not have clearance to proceed onto the runway. Generally, runway holding position markings also identify the boundary of the runway safety area for aircraft exiting the runway.
- Runway holding position markings on runways are installed only if the runway is used by ATC for “land, hold short” operations or taxiing operations. These markings have operational significance only for those two types of operations. A sign with a white inscription on a red background is installed adjacent to these holding position markings.
- Runway holding position markings on taxiways located in runway approach areas are used at some airports where it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway located in the approach or departure area of a runway so that the aircraft does not interfere with the operations on that runway. ATC notifies pilots when to hold short of a runway approach or departure area.
Example Instructions: “Hold short of Runway 32 approach area.”
Holding position markings for instrument landing system (ILS) critical areas consist of two solid yellow lines (horizontal) connected by pairs of solid lines (vertical) extending across the width of the taxiway. ATC notifies pilots when to hold short of an ILS critical area.
Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single, yellow dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway.
Surface painted holding position signs have a red background with a white inscription and supplement the signs located at holding positions. These type of markings are normally used where the width of the holding position on the taxiway is greater than 200′. It is located to the left side of the taxiway centerline on the holding side and prior to the holding position marking.
Other Airport Markings
Reference: AIM 2-3-6Vehicle roadway markings are used when necessary to define a pathway for vehicle operations on or crossing areas that are also intended for aircraft. Zipper markings delineate the edges of the vehicle roadway. In lieu of the dashed lines, solid white lines may be used.
VOR checkpoint markings allow the pilot to check aircraft instruments with NAVAID signals. It consists of a painted circle with an arrow in the middle that is aligned in the direction of the checkpoint azimuth.
Nonmovement area boundary markings delineate the movement area, an area controlled by ATC. These markings consist of two yellow lines, one solid and one dashed. The solid line is located on the nonmovement area side (not under ATC control). The dashed yellow line is located on the movement area side (ATC controlled).
Permanently closed runways and taxiways have their lighting circuits disconnected, and the runway threshold, runway designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated. Yellow crosses are painted on each end of the runway and at 1,000-foot intervals.
Temporarily closed runways and taxiways can be identified by yellow crosses. A cross may be placed on each runway end in lieu of permanent markings.
Airport Signs
Mandatory instruction signs have a red background with a white inscription.
Typical applications are:
- Runway holding position signs
- Runway approach area holding position signs
- ILS critical area holding position signs
- No entry signs
Location signs are black with yellow inscription and a yellow border and do not have arrows.
Typical applications are:
- Taxiway location signs
- Runway location signs
- Runway boundary signs
- ILS critical area boundary signs
Direction signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. Each designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating the direction of the turn.
Destination signs also have a yellow background with a black inscription indicating a destination on the airport. These signs always have an arrow showing the direction to a destination. Destinations commonly shown are runways, terminals, cargo areas, and FBOs.
Information signs have a yellow background with black inscription. These signs are used to provide the pilot with information on such things as radio frequencies and noise abatement procedures.
Runway distance remaining signs have a black background with a white numeral inscription and may be installed along one or both sides of the runway. The number on the signs indicates the distance, in thousands of feet, of landing runway remaining.
Runway Lighting
Runway end identifier lights (REIL) are flashing lights that provide rapid and positive identification of the end of a runway. The system consists of two synchronized flashing lights, uni-directional or omni-directional, one on each side of the runway landing threshold.
Runway edge lights are used to outline the edges of runways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These lights are white, except on instrument runways yellow replaces white on the last 2,000′ or half the runway length, whichever is less, to form a caution zone for landings.
Runway edge light systems are classified according to the intensity or brightness they are capable of producing: high-intensity runway lights (HIRL), medium-intensity runway lights (MIRL), and low-intensity runway lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL systems have variable intensity controls, whereas the LIRL’s normally have one intensity setting.
Runway threshold lights mark the ends of the runway emit red light toward the runway to indicate the end of runway to a departing aircraft and emit green outward from the runway end to indicate the threshold to landing aircraft.
Runway centerline light systems (RCLS) are installed on some precision approach runways to facilitate landing under adverse visibility conditions. These lights are located along the runway centerline and are spaced at 50-foot intervals. When viewed from the landing threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until the last 3,000′ of the runway. The white lights begin to alternate with red for the next 2,000′, and for the last 1,000′ of the runway, all centerline lights are red.
Touchdown zone lights (TDZL) are installed on some precision approach runways to indicate the touchdown zone when landing under adverse visibility conditions. These lights consist of two rows of transverse light bars disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline. The system consists of steady-burning white lights that start 100′ beyond the landing threshold and extend to 3,000′ beyond the landing threshold or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less.
Taxiway centerline lead-off lights provide visual guidance to pilots exiting the runway. These lights alternate green and yellow from the runway centerline to the runway holding position or the ILS critical area, as appropriate.
Taxiway centerline lead-on lights provide visual guidance to pilots entering the runway and to warn them that they are within the runway environment or ILS critical area. These lights alternate green and yellow. The fixtures are bidirectional (i.e., one side emits light for the lead-on function while the other side emits light for the lead-off function).
Land and hold short lights are used to indicate the hold short point on certain runways that are approved for land and hold short operations (LAHSO). Land and hold short lights consist of a row of pulsing white lights installed across the runway at the hold short point. Where installed, the lights will be on anytime LAHSO is in effect. These lights will be off when LAHSO is not in effect.
Taxiway Lighting
Taxiway edge lights outline the edges of taxiways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These fixtures are steady burning and emit blue light.
Taxiway centerline lights are located along the taxiway centerline to facilitate ground traffic under low visibility conditions. These lights are steady burning and emit green light.
Clearance bar lights consist of three, yellow in-pavement lights. These lights are installed at some taxiway holding positions to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in low visibility conditions and periods of darkness.
Runway guard lights are installed at taxiways that provide access to an active runway and may be used in all weather conditions. These lights consist of elevated or in-pavement, alternately flashing yellow lights that identify the location of a runway holding position marking. Elevated guard lights are sometimes referred to as “wig-wag” lights because they blink on and off in an alternating fashion.
Stop bar lights are used to confirm the ATC clearance to enter or cross the active runway in low visibility conditions. These lights consist of a row of red, unidirectional, elevated and in-pavement lights placed at the runway holding position (runway entrance or ILS critical area). These lights may be operated automatically or controlled by ATC. Following an ATC clearance to proceed, the stop bar is turned off, and the taxiway centerline lead-on lights are turned on.
Caution: Pilots should never cross a red illuminated stop bar, even if an ATC clearance has been received.
Hot Spots
A hot spot is a location on an airport movement area with a history or potential risk of collision or runway incursion, and where heightened attention by pilots and drivers is necessary. Hot spots are typically located at confusing taxiway or runway intersections.
Hot spots are depicted on airport diagrams as open circles designated by “HS” and a number (e.g., HS 1 or HS 2). They are also described in Chart Supplement publications under the “Hots Spots” heading. Hot spots remain charted until the increased risk has been reduced or eliminated.
Airport Surface Detection Equipment
Reference: AIM 4-5-5Airport surface detection equipment detects aircraft, vehicles, and other objects on the surface of an airport and presents the information as images to ground and tower controllers. The data can also be provided to an automated Runway Status Lights system.
Types of systems:
- ASDE-3: Surface Movement Radar (non ADS-B)
- ASDE-X: Airport Surface Detection Equipment-Model X (radar and ADS-B)
- ASSC: Airport Surface Surveillance Capability (radar and ADS-B)
Data for these systems can come from:
- Surface movement radar
- Sensors located around the airport
- Aircraft transponders
- ADS-B sensors
Runway Status Light System
References: AIM 2-1-6, AIM 2-1-7, AC 150/5340-30The Runway Status Lights (RWSL) system is a fully automated, advisory system designed to reduce runway incursions. It processes information from surveillance systems, such as ASDE-X, and alerts pilots of potential conflict by illuminating the appropriate lighting.
The RWSL system provides a reinforcement of controller guidance. It does not substitute for a verbal ATC clearance. If ATC gives a clearance and the lights remain illuminated, pilots should not proceed, but advise ATC that they are holding for red lights.
When operating at airports with RWSL, pilots must operate with the transponder and ADS-B “On” until arriving at or leaving the parking area.
Components
Runway Entrance Lights (REL) are in-pavement, red lights located along the taxiway centerline. These lights are focused toward the pilot at the hold line. When activated, the lights indicate that there is high-speed traffic on the runway, or there is an aircraft on final approach within the activation area.
Takeoff Hold Lights (THL) consist of a double-row of in-pavement, red lights aligned on either side of the runway centerline lighting. These lights are focused toward the “line up and wait” point. THLs will illuminate for an aircraft in position for departure or departing when there is another aircraft or vehicle on the runway or about to enter the runway. Once that aircraft or vehicle exits the runway, the THLs extinguish.
Runway Intersection Lights (RIL) have the appearance of THL but are located at runway intersections. These lights illuminate when there is a conflict with traffic operating on an intersecting runway. Pilots who observe the red lights should operate according to their best judgment.
The Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS) is communicated by flashing of the PAPI lights to indicate to a pilot on an approach that the runway is occupied and that it may be unsafe to land. The pilot must contact ATC for resolution by 300′ AGL. If the PAPI continues to flash, the pilot must execute an immediate go-around and contact ATC at the earliest possible opportunity.
Communications at Airports Without an Operating Control Tower
References: AIM 4-1-9, AC 90-66When approaching or departing an airport without an operating control tower, pilots should:
- Transmit and receive on the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF).
- Limit communications on the CTAF to safety-essential information.
- Receive weather information from an automated weather station, if available.
- Obtain airport and traffic information by communicating with an FSS or a UNICOM, if available.
- Use the correct airport name when communicating their position, intentions, or exchanging traffic information.
- Say the correct airport name at the beginning and end of each self-announce transmission.
- Be aware that airports without operating control towers generally do not require the use of two-way radios (i.e., “NORDO” aircraft).
Pilots should avoid:
- Using the words “to” and “for” whenever possible to help avoid misunderstandings.
- Using the phrase “any traffic in the area, please advise.” Any traffic that is present that is capable of radio communications should reply without being prompted to do so.
Common Traffic Advisory Frequency
A common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF) is a designated frequency for carrying out airport advisory practices while operating at an airport without an operating control tower. The CTAF is only to be used for collision avoidance and airport advisories.
The CTAF is normally an Aeronautical Advisory Station (UNICOM), MULTICOM, or FSS frequency.
UNICOM is a nongovernment air/ground radio communication station which provides airport information at public use airports. These usually are staffed by FBO employees. These operators may provide pilots with weather information, wind direction, the recommended runway, or other necessary information, but they are not required to communicate with pilots.
MULTICOM is a service used for essential communications in the conduct of activities performed by private aircraft.
CTAF Communications
“Self-announce” is a procedure whereby pilots broadcast their aircraft call sign, position, altitude, and intended flight activity or ground operation on the designated CTAF.
Example: “Springfield traffic, [call sign] 10 miles to the northeast, inbound for landing runway 22, Springfield.”
Summary of Communication Procedures
Facility at Airport | Frequency Use | Outbound Communications | Inbound Communications |
UNICOM (No Tower or FSS) | Communicate with UNICOM station on published CTAF. | Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure. | 10 miles out. Entering downwind, base, and final. Leaving the runway. |
No Tower, FSS, or UNICOM | Self-announce on MULTICOM frequency 122.9. | Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure. | 10 miles out. Entering downwind, base, and final. Leaving the runway. |
No Tower in operation, FSS open | Communicate with FSS on CTAF. | Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure. | 10 miles out. Entering downwind, base, and final. Leaving the runway. |
FSS Closed (No Tower) | Self-announce on CTAF. | Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure. | 10 miles out. Entering downwind, base, and final. Leaving the runway. |
Tower or FSS not in operation | Self-announce on CTAF. | Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure. | 10 miles out. Entering downwind, base, and final. Leaving the runway. |
Designated CTAF Area (Alaska Only) | Self-announce on CTAF. | Before taxiing and before taxiing on the runway for departure until leaving the designated area. | When entering designated CTAF area. |
Communications at Airports With an Operating Control Tower
Reference: AIM 4-3-2Ground Control
Pilots of departing aircraft must communicate with ground control to receive taxi instructions before entering the movement area, an area controlled by ATC. Unless otherwise advised, pilots should remain on the ground control frequency during taxiing and run-up, then change to the tower frequency when ready to request the takeoff clearance.
Pilots of landing aircraft should not change from the tower frequency to the ground control frequency until directed to do so by the controller.
Tower Control
When operating at an airport with a control tower, pilots are required to maintain two-way radio contact with the tower unless the tower authorizes otherwise.
Pilots of landing aircraft should make the initial callup about 10–15 miles from the airport and outside of the airspace controlled by the tower.
Pilots of departing aircraft do not need to request permission to leave the tower frequency once outside of Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas.
Best Practices for Communications
Reference: AIM 4-2- Think before keying the transmitter.
- Position the microphone very close to the lips.
- Use standard phraseology at all times.
- Check the volume control and squelch settings to ensure proper reception.
- Listen before transmitting to avoid interrupting or blocking other communications.
- Before beginning a lengthy communication with ATC, initial contact should be established.
- While communicating with ATC, focus on what the controller is saying and do not perform any non-essential tasks.
- Avoid using “Roger” or “Wilco” when reading back an ATC clearance or instruction.
- Monitor all radio communications to establish a “mental picture” of airport activity.
- Use an additional radio, if equipped, to monitor guard frequency as a backup to a stuck microphone or lost communications.
- Be aware of the need for complete understanding of accents, terminology, and ICAO procedures while operating at foreign airports.
Recommended Usage of Exterior Lighting
References: 14 CFR 91.209, AIM 4-3-23, AC 91-73- Engines Running: Beacon ON
- Sunset to Sunrise: Position lights ON
- Taxi (While Moving): Taxi light ON
- Taxi (When Stopped or Yielding): Taxi light OFF
- Crossing a Runway: All exterior lighting ON
- Line Up and Wait: Landing light OFF; All other exterior lighting ON
- Takeoff and Landing: All exterior lighting ON
- Climb and Descent: All exterior lighting ON
Operation “Lights On”
The FAA has a voluntary pilot safety program, Operation “Lights On”, to enhance the see-and-avoid concept. Pilots are encouraged to turn landing lights ON when operating below 10,000′, day or night, especially when operating within 10 miles of any airport, or in conditions of reduced visibility.
Situational Awareness
Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four fundamental risk elements (pilot, aircraft, environment, and type of operation) that affect safety before, during, and after the flight.
To maintain situational awareness, all of the skills involved in aeronautical decision-making (ADM) are used. When situationally aware, the pilot has an overview of the total operation and is not fixated on one perceived significant factor.
Situational Awareness = Experience + Analysis
Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness
Fatigue, stress, or work overload can cause the pilot to fixate on a single perceived important item rather than maintaining an overall awareness of the flight situation. A contributing factor in many accidents is a distraction, which diverts the pilot’s attention from monitoring the instruments or visual scanning.
Task Management
Effective task management ensures that essential operations are accomplished by planning, prioritizing, and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload. Like any other skill, pilots must learn to perform several tasks at once, deal with distractions and interruptions, and overcome problems with fixation and inattention.
Multitasking
Multitasking is the simultaneous execution of two or more tasks. It involves two different abilities: attention switching and simultaneous performance.
Attention switching is the continuous switching of attention back and forth between two or more tasks. For many flying tasks, attention switching is the only way to accomplish multitasking. For example, attention must be continuously switched between reading a checklist and inspecting the items.
Simultaneous performance, or performing several tasks at once, is possible when skills developed to the point of being automatic. For example, an experienced instrument pilot can scan the instruments and responding to minor attitude deviations while communicating with ATC.
Errors in Task Management
Task saturation occurs whenever work requirements exceed the worker’s capabilities. When a pilot becomes task saturated, there is no awareness of inputs from various sources. Decisions may be made on incomplete information and the possibility of error increases.
Distractions occur when an unexpected event causes attention to be momentarily diverted. Distractions while changing aircraft configuration or trim, maneuvering to avoid other traffic, or clearing obstacles during takeoff are potentially hazardous. Pilots must learn to decide whether a distraction warrants further attention or action on their part.
Interruptions occur when a pilot voluntarily suspends performance of one task to complete a different one. A typical example of an interruption is one that occurs while following the steps in a checklist. The pilot puts down the checklist, deals with the interruption, and then returns to the procedure, but erroneously picks up at a later point in the procedure and omits one or more steps.
Fixation occurs when a pilot becomes absorbed in performing one task to the exclusion of other tasks. Beginning instrument pilots characteristically fixate on particular instruments, attempting to control one aspect of their performance while other aspects deteriorate. Fixation on a task is often a sign that the task has not received enough practice in isolation.
Inattention occurs when a pilot fails to pay attention to a task that is important. Inattention is sometimes a natural by-product of fixation. Pilots fixate on one task and become too busy to attend to other tasks. Inattention also happens when pilots become bored or think that a task does not deserve their attention.
Complacency is overconfidence that results from repeated experience on a specific activity. It is an insidious and hard-to-identify attitude. Automation can induce overconfidence. The pilot assumes the autopilot is doing its job and does not crosscheck the instruments frequently.
Sterile Cockpit Rule
Reference: 14 CFR 121.542Commonly known as the sterile cockpit rule, air carrier pilots are required to refrain from nonessential activities during critical phases of flight. As defined in the regulation, critical phases of flight are all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff, and landing, and all other flight operations below 10,000′ except cruise flight. Nonessential activities include such activities as eating, reading a newspaper, or chatting.
While the regulation grew out of accidents in the airline industry, it holds true for the entire aviation community. Pilots can improve flight safety significantly by reducing distractions during critical phases of flight.
Chart Supplements
Runaway 1961
Chart Supplement publications, formerly called the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD), are issued by the FAA for various geographical regions. They can be obtained digitally from the FAA’s website or ordered in a paper book format.
Chart Supplement publications contain information on airports, communications, navigation aids, instrument landing systems, VOR receiver checkpoints, preferred routes, FSS telephone numbers, Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) frequencies, part-time surface areas, and various other pertinent special notices essential to air navigation.
Link: https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/dafd/
Automatic Terminal Information Service
References: AC 00-45, FAA Order JO 7110.65An Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a continuous broadcast or recorded information in selected terminal areas. Its purpose is to reduce controller workload and to relieve frequency congestion by automating the repetitive transmission of terminal area weather information and advisories.
Components of an ATIS broadcast:
- Airport name
- Phonetic letter code (used sequentially beginning with “Alpha” and ending with”Zulu)
- Weather information (e.g., wind speed and direction, sky condition, temperature, and altimeter)
- Instrument approach and runway in use
- Taxiway closures which affect the entrance or exit of active runways
- Runway Condition Codes (RwyCC), if applicable
- Low-level wind shear and microburst advisories, if applicable
- Any other advisories and optional information
Example ATIS Broadcast from the Boston Logan Airport:
Boston Tower Information Delta. 1140 Zulu. Wind 250 at 10. Visibility 10. Ceiling 4,500 broken. Temperature three four. Dew point 28. Altimeter 30.00. ILS-DME Runway 27 Approach in use. Departing Runway 22R. All aircraft must read back hold short instructions. Advise on initial contact you have Delta.
Boston Tower Information Delta. 1140 Zulu. Wind 250 at 10. Visibility 10. Ceiling 4,500 broken. Temperature three four. Dew point 28. Altimeter 30.00. ILS-DME Runway 27 Approach in use. Departing Runway 22R. All aircraft must read back hold short instructions. Advise on initial contact you have Delta.
Taxi Instructions
References: AIM 4-3-18, AIM 5-2-5, AC 91-73When assigned a departure runway, ATC will first specify the runway, issue taxi instructions, and state any hold short instructions or runway crossing clearances if the taxi route will cross a runway. To preclude misunderstandings in radio communications, ATC never uses the word “cleared” in conjunction with taxi instructions.
Movement Versus Nonmovement Areas
A movement area is the runways, taxiways, and other areas of an airport that are used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing. At a towered airport, the movement area is controlled by ATC. Pilots must receive a clearance before taxiing on a movement area. Nonmovement areas include ramps and parking areas and are not controlled by ATC.
Required Readbacks
Pilots must always read back:
- The runway assignment.
- Any clearance to taxi onto or cross a specific runway.
- Any instruction to hold short of a specific runway or line up and wait.
The readback for a hold short instruction should include the words “hold short,” the runway or taxiway designator, and the aircraft’s call sign.
Progressive Taxi
If the pilot is unfamiliar with the airport or unsure of a taxi route, a “progressive taxi” should be requested. Progressive taxi requires ATC to provide step-by-step taxi instructions.
Hold Short Instructions
When ATC issues “hold short” instructions, the pilot is expected to taxi up to, but not cross any part of the runway holding marking.
Example Instructions: “Runway 36L, taxi via Alpha, hold short of Runway 27.”
Note: If pilots are expected to hold short of a runway approach/departure hold area (e.g., 22-APPCH/22-DEP) or ILS holding position, ATC will issue instructions.Explicit Runway Crossings
ATC is required to issue specific instructions to “cross” or “hold short” of each runway, even if the runway is closed. Instructions to cross a runway are typically issued one at a time, and an aircraft must have crossed the previous runway before another runway crossing is issued. Exceptions are made for closely spaced runways.
Pilots may not enter a runway unless they have been:
- Instructed to cross or taxi onto that specific runway;
- Cleared to take off from that runway; or
- Instructed to line up and wait on that specific runway.
Line Up and Wait
ATC uses the “line up and wait” (LUAW) instruction when a takeoff clearance cannot be issued immediately. ATC should state the reason for any delay in issuing the takeoff clearance.
Example Instructions: “Runway 27, line up and wait.”
The pilot should contact ATC if a takeoff clearance is not received within 90 seconds of getting a line-up-and-wait instruction.
Example: “[call sign] holding in position Runway 27.”
Best Practices for Line-Up-and-Wait Operations
- Turn on the traffic information displays, if equipped, to increase awareness of landing traffic.
- Make the aircraft more conspicuous to aircraft on final and to ATC by turning on all lights except for landing lights that highlight the aircraft’s silhouette.
- At night, consider lining up slightly (approximately 3′) to the left or right of the centerline to enable a landing aircraft to visually differentiate your aircraft from the runway lights.
- Do not wait on the runway at nontowered airports.
Use of Written Taxi Instructions
When the taxi instructions are complex, written instructions are desirable. Written instructions can be used to read back the instructions to ATC and to later recall any forgotten information. To help copy the instructions, pilots should develop a set of symbols and shorthand notations.
Suggested shorthand symbols:
- Hold Short: A slash (/) before the hold point
- Cross: (×) before the runway number
- Turn: Left (←) or Right (→)
Example Instructions: “Runway 36L, taxi via Bravo, Echo, Juliet, hold short of Runway 27 at Echo.”
Example Shorthand: “36L B E J /27 E”
Example Shorthand: “36L B E J /27 E”
Airport Knowledge and Planning
Reference: AC 91-73Pilots should give as much attention to planning the airport surface movement as is given to other phases of flight. This planning should be completed in two phases: review items and briefing items.
Review Items
- Current airport NOTAMs.
- The ATIS, if available, for runway and taxiway closures, construction activity, and other airport-specific risks.
- The current airport diagram.
- The location of hot spots and other potential areas for a runway incursion.
- Published textual descriptions of standard taxi routes, if published, to provide an overall “big picture” of the airport.
Briefing Items
- The expected taxi route, to include the locations of hold short lines and runways to cross.
- Critical locations on the taxi route (e.g., hot spots, complex intersections, and crossing runways).
- The display the current airport diagram and the plan to track progress on the chart.
- The timing and execution of aircraft checklists and communications at times that will not interfere with taxiing activity.
- The importance of maintaining a sterile cockpit, but encourage occupants to speak up if a potential conflict is spotted.
- Unusual procedures or techniques that are not typically used on an everyday basis.
- Remind all cockpit occupants the use of cell phones and other electrical devices is discouraged.
Low Visibility Operations
References: AIM 4-3-19, AC 91-73Low visibility conditions increase the risk of a runway incursion. Pilots should be aware that their aircraft may not be visible to the tower controller. This may prevent visual confirmation of the aircraft’s adherence to taxi instructions.
Best Practices for Low Visibility Operations
- Use all available resources including the airport diagram, the heading indicator, and airport signs, markings, and lighting.
- Review and brief the low visibility taxi chart, if published, and be alert if ATC states to hold short of the ILS critical area.
- Perform all heads-down tasks while the aircraft is stopped.
- Checklists and nonessential communication should be withheld until the airplane is stopped and the brakes are set.
- Notify ATC when difficulties are encountered or at the first indication of becoming disoriented.
Cockpit Procedures for Maintaining Orientation
Reference: AC 91-73Situational awareness is particularly important during taxi operations. Pilots should use a “continuous loop” process to monitor and update their progress and location during taxi. All visual cues including airport signs, markings, and lighting should be used together with the airport diagram to maintain the planned taxi route.
Caution: When uncertain about their location, pilots should make sure they are clear of a runway and stop the aircraft, and advise ATC. Progressive taxi instructions can be requested if necessary.
Best Practices for Maintaining Orientation
- Keep track of the aircraft’s progress on the airport diagram.
- Maintain a sterile cockpit and pilot workload to a minimum while the aircraft is moving.
- Have a working knowledge of airport markings and signs.
- Request progressive taxi instructions at unfamiliar airports.
- Use all available resources including the heading indicator and all visual aids at the airport.
- Constantly scan outside the cockpit for other aircraft and vehicles, especially when approaching, crossing, and while on runways.
Best Practices for Runway Incursion Avoidance
- Know the location of any hot spots.
- Clear both left and right before crossing a runway.
- Never assume that a runway is clear just because clearance is received to taxi onto it.
- When cleared to take off or cross a runway, or when exiting a runway, do so promptly.
- Never stop on a runway unless instructed by ATC to do so.
- Be cautious of expectation bias when copying clearances (i.e., copying what is expected instead of what is said).
- Be aware that hold short lines may be located as far as 400′ from runway edge.
- Exercise increased awareness when taxing in between active parallel runways.
- Defer all nonessential tasks until the airplane is stopped and the brakes are set.
Night Considerations
- Taxi slowly, particularly in congested areas.
- Use extra caution when entering or crossing a runway.
- Avoid using the strobe lights and bright, forward-facing lights around other aircraft.
- When stopped, use extra vigilance to ensure the airplane does not creep forward.
Nontowered Airport Considerations
References: AC 90-66, AC 91-73- Continuously monitor and communicate on the appropriate frequency.
- Scan the full length of the runway, including the final approach paths, before entering or crossing a runway.
- Flight operations may occur at more than one runway at the airport.
- Some aircraft operating at airports without operating control towers may not be equipped with a radio.
- Aircraft may be using an instrument approach procedure (IAP) to runways other than the runway in use for takeoff and landing.
Best Practices for Runway Incursion Avoidance
- Before entering the runway at any airport, scan the final approach path and runway environment.
- Before entering the runway at non-towered airports:
- Communicate and listen on the appropriate frequency.
- Make a 360° turn to scan for traffic.
- Be aware that traffic may be departing or landing on more than one runway, especially if the winds are light or variable.
- Before entering the runway at towered airports, make sure you are cleared to do so and that it is safe (i.e., “trust but verify”).
- Always verify that the airplane is on the correct runway by observing the runway designation marking or sign.
- Verify the heading indicator matches the runway direction.
Land and Hold Short Operations
ATC may clear an aircraft to land and hold short of an intersecting runway, an intersecting taxiway, or some other designated point on a runway. LAHSO instructions should only be issued when there is a minimum ceiling of 1,000′ and 3 SM of visibility.
Pilots may accept LAHSO instructions provided the aircraft can safely land and stop within the Available Landing Distance (ALD). ALD data is published in the special notices section of the Chart Supplements and the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publications. ATC can also provide ALD data upon request.
The PIC has the final authority to accept or decline land-and-hold-short instructions. LAHSO instructions do not have to be accepted. A pilot who accepts a LAHSO instruction should land and exit the runway at the first convenient taxiway (unless directed otherwise) before reaching the hold short point. Otherwise, the pilot must stop on the runway and hold at the hold short point.
Note: Instructors should teach LAHSO, but student pilots must understand that they are not authorized during a solo flight.After Landing Procedures
References: AIM 4-3-14, AIM 4-3-20- Maintain track over the runway centerline with ailerons and heading with the rudder pedals.
- Gradually slow the airplane to the normal taxi speed with normal brake pressure.
- Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, exit the runway at the first available taxiway. Do not turn until reaching a normal taxi speed.
- Ensure that the entire aircraft, including the tail section, has crossed over the respective landing runway’s hold short line.
- Accomplish the appropriate after-landing checklist after the airplane is brought to a complete stop.
- After being advised by the tower, change to ground control frequency to obtain taxi instructions.
Exiting the Runway After Landing
References: AIM 4-3-20, AC 91-73Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, pilots must:
- Exit the runway without delay at the first available taxiway or on a taxiway.
- Clear the hold position marking associated with the landing runway, even if that requires the aircraft to protrude into or cross another taxiway or ramp area.
Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, pilots cannot:
- Cross a subsequent taxiway or runway after clearing the runway.
- Exit the landing runway onto another runway.
- Stop or reverse course on the runway.
Airport Specific Training
- How to obtain current airport NOTAMs
- How to get the ATIS (simulate if not applicable)
- How to request, copy, and readback a taxi clearance (simulate if not applicable)
- The identification, meaning, and importance of airport signs, marking, and lighting
Local Area Review
- Local airports with identifiable hot spots
Scenario 1 – Crossing Runways
You are on an approach to land at an unfamiliar airport. A tower is in operation and is very busy controlling aircraft operations on the two parallel runways. Once you have landed, you will need to cross the parallel runway as you taxi to the parking location.
What are you expected to do after landing if ATC is unable to issue you any instructions? What resources are available to you in the flight planning phase to mitigate the chances of a runway incursion upon arrival at an airport like this?
Scenario 2 – Occupied Runway
Just as your wheels touch the pavement, another airplane taxis across the runway directly in front of you. Would you go around or veer to the side of the conflicting traffic?
YouTube Video:
A Boeing 757 makes a wrong turn onto an active runway and narrowly misses a departing Boeing 727:
- Aircraft: United Airlines Flight 1448 and and FedEx Flight 1662
- Location: Providence, RI
- Date: December 6, 1999
Two Boeing 747s collide on a runway in dense fog:
- Aircraft: KLM Flight 4805 and Pan Am Flight 1738
- Location: Tenerife, Canary Islands
- Date: March 27, 1977
Sample Presentation by MyCFIBook.com
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